Current Drug Targets

ISSN: 1389-4501

Current Drug Targets
Volume 7, Number 8, August 2006

Contents

The Reversal of Drug Resistance from Bacteria to Cancer Cells
Part - II
Guest Editor: Joseph Molnar

Multidrug Transporters as Drug Targets Pp. 911-921
X-J. Liang and A. Aszalos
[Abstract]


Cellular Functions of Vaults and their Involvement in Multidrug Resistance Pp. 923-934
E. Steiner, K. Holzmann, L. Elbling, M. Micksche and W. Berger
[Abstract]


Chloroquine Resistance Reversal Agents as Promising Antimalarial Drugs Pp. 935-948
M. Henry, S. Alibert, E. Orlandi-Pradines, H. Bogreau, T. Fusai, C. Rogier, J. Barbe and B. Pradines
[Abstract]


Cancer Cell Permeability-Glycoprotein as a Target of MDR Reverters: Possible Role of Novel Dihydropyridine Derivatives Pp. 949-959
F. Fusi, S. Saponara, M. Valoti, S. Dragoni, P. D’Elia, T. Sgaragli, D. Alderighi and G. Sgaragli
[Abstract]


Tachykinins and their Receptors in Human Physiology and Diseases
Guest Editor: Carla Palma


Editorial Pp. 961


Overview of the Primary Structure, Tissue-Distribution, and Functions of Tachykinins and their Receptors Pp. 963-974
H. Satake and T. Kawada
[Abstract]


Tachykinin Receptors Antagonists: From Research to Clinic Pp. 975-992
L. Quartara and M. Altamura
[Abstract]


Tachykinins and Neuropsychiatric Disorders Pp. 993-1003
L.A. Chahl
[Abstract]


Tachykinins in the Respiratory Tract Pp. 1005-1010
D.A. Groneberg, S. Harrison, Q.T. Dinh, P. Geppetti and A. Fischer
[Abstract]


Tachykinins in the Immune System Pp. 1011-1020
Y. Zhang, A. Berger, C.D. Milne and C.J. Paige
[Abstract]


Tachykinins: Role in Human Gastrointestinal Tract Physiology and Pathology Pp. 1021-1029
G. Improta and M. Broccardo
[Abstract]


Tachykinins and the Cardiovascular System Pp. 1031-1042
D.A. Walsh and D.F. McWilliams
[Abstract]


Tachykinins and their Receptors in Human Malignancies Pp. 1043-1052
C. Palma
[Abstract]




Abstracts
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Multidrug Transporters as Drug Targets
X-J. Liang and A. Aszalos

Transport molecules can significantly affect the pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics of drugs. An important transport molecule, the 170kDa P-glycoprotein (Pgp), is constitutively expressed at several organ sites in the human body. Pgp is expressed at the blood-brain barrier, in the kidneys, liver, intestines and in certain T cells. Other transporters such as the multidrug resistance protein 1 (MRP1) and MRP2 also contribute to drug distribution in the human body, although to a lesser extent than Pgp. These three transporters, and especially Pgp, are often targets of drugs. Pgp can be an intentional or unintentional target. It is directly targeted when one wants to block its function by a modifier drug so that another drug, also a substrate of Pgp, can penetrate the cell membrane, which would otherwise be impermeable. Unintentional targeting occurs when several drugs are administered to a patient and as a consequence, the physiological function of Pgp is blocked at different organ sites. Like Pgp, MRP1 also has the capacity to mediate transport of many drugs and other compounds. MRP1 has a protective role in preventing accumulation of toxic compounds and drugs in epithelial tissue covering the choroid plexus/cerebrospinal fluid compartment, oral epithelium, sertoli cells, intesticular tubules and urinary collecting duct cells. MRP2 primarily transports weakly basic drugs and bilirubin from the liver to bile. Most compounds that efficiently block Pgp have only low affinity for MRP1 and MRP2. There are only a few effective and specific MRP inhibitors available. Drug targeting of these transporters may play a role in cancer chemotherapy and in the pharmacokinetics of substrate drugs.


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Cellular Functions of Vaults and their Involvement in Multidrug Resistance
E. Steiner, K. Holzmann, L. Elbling, M. Micksche and W. Berger

Vaults are evolutionary highly conserved ribonucleoprotein (RNP) particles with a hollow barrel-like structure. They are 41 x 73 nm in size and are composed of multiple copies of three proteins and small untranslated RNA (vRNA). The main component of vaults represents the 110 kDa major vault protein (MVP), whereas the two minor vault proteins comprise the 193 kDa vault poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (VPARP) and the 240 kDa telomerase-associated protein-1 (TEP1). Vaults are abundantly present in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells and they were found to be associated with cytoskeletal elements as well as occasionally with the nuclear envelope. Vaults and MVP have been associated with several cellular processes which are also involved in cancer development like cell motility and differentiation. Due to the over-expression of MVP (also termed lung resistance-related protein or LRP) in several P-glycoprotein (P-gp)-negative chemoresistant cancer cell lines, vaults have been linked to multidrug resistance (MDR). Accordingly, high levels of MVP were found in tissues chronically exposed to xenobiotics. In addition, the expression of MVP correlated with the degree of malignancy in certain cancer types, suggesting a direct involvement in tumor development and/or progression. Based on the finding that MVP binds several phosphatases and kinases including PTEN, SHP-2 as well as Erk, evidence is accumulating that MVP might be involved in the regulation of important cell signalling pathways including the PI3K/Akt and the MAPK pathways. In this review we summarize the current knowledge concerning the vault particle and discuss its possible cellular functions, focusing on the role of vaults in chemotherapy resistance.


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Chloroquine Resistance Reversal Agents as Promising Antimalarial Drugs
M. Henry, S. Alibert, E. Orlandi-Pradines, H. Bogreau, T. Fusai, C. Rogier, J. Barbe and B. Pradines

The development and spread of resistance to antimalarial drugs poses a severe and increasing public health threat. Failures of prophylaxis or treatment with quinolines, hydroxynaphthoquinones, sesquiterpene lactones, antifolate drugs and sulfamides are involved in a return malaria-related morbidity and mortality.

Resistance is associated with a decrease in accumulation of drugs into the vacuole, which results from a reduced uptake of the drug, an increased efflux or a combination of both. A number of candidate genes in P. falciparum have been proposed to be involved in antimalarial resistance, each concerned in membrane transport. Weaker or stronger associations are seen in P. falciparum between the resistance to quinolines or artemisinin derivatives and codon changes in Pfmdr1, a gene which encodes Pgh-1, an ortholog of one of the P-glycoproteins expressed in multi-drug resistant human cancer cells (ABC transporter). Further analysis has revealed a new gene, Pfcrt, encoding a PfCRT protein, which resembles an anion channel. Codon changes found in the Pfcrt sequence in drug resistant isolates could facilitate the drug efflux through a putative channel. It has been proposed that the reversal of quinoline resistance by verapamil is due to hydrophobic binding to the mutated PfCRT protein.

Several compounds have demonstrated in the past decade a promising capability to reverse the antimalarial drug resistance in vitro in parasite isolates, in animal models and in human malaria. These drugs belong to different pharmacological classes such as calcium channel blockers, tricyclic antidepressants, antipsychotic calmodulin antagonists, histamine H₁-receptor antagonists, analgesic and antipyretic drugs, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, and to different chemical classes such as synthetic surfactants, alkaloids from plants used in traditional medicine, pyrrolidinoaminoalkanes and anthracenic derivatives. Here we summarize the progress made in biochemical and genetic basis of antimalarial resistance, emphasizing the recent developments on drugs, which interfere with trans membrane proteins involved in drug efflux or uptake.


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Cancer Cell Permeability-Glycoprotein as a Target of MDR Reverters: Possible Role of Novel Dihydropyridine Derivatives
F. Fusi, S. Saponara, M. Valoti, S. Dragoni, P. D’Elia, T. Sgaragli, D. Alderighi and G. Sgaragli

The overexpression of permeability-glycoprotein (P-gp) and other drug transporters (ATP-binding cassette) confers a multidrug resistance (MDR) phenotype on cells in various diseases, including many forms of cancer. Development of MDR is one of the main reasons of failure in malignant tumour chemotherapy, as tumour cells, by increasing drug efflux, acquire cross-resistance to many structurally and functionally unrelated anticancer agents, which therefore never achieve effective intracellular concentrations. Endeavouring to find MDR-reverters is a crucial task for exploring new anti-cancer therapeutic intervention. Although many P-gp inhibitors have so far been identified, it is widely recognised that their interaction with P-gp is a complex process and, presently, the details of the mechanisms of action are still a matter of debate. These compounds turned out, however, to be of limited clinical usefulness owing to their inherent pharmacological activities (first generation compounds) and their accessory, inhibiting activity on CYP enzyme system (second generation compounds). Moreover, recent advances of the knowledge on P-gp structure and function and on the mechanisms of P-gp inhibition will prove fruitful for the development of novel therapeutically effective P-gp inhibitors. A dibenzoyl-1,4-dihydropyridine com-pound (DP7) has been shown to be a powerful P-gp inhibitor, almost devoid of cardiovascular effects, but capable of inhibiting liver CYP3A. DP7 is considered a lead compound for the development of novel dihydropyridines which do not affect CYP enzyme system but still retain the activity towards ABC-efflux transporters.


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Editorial

Tachykinins are neuropeptides largely conserved from the lowest invertebrates to man. Besides their role as neurotrasmitters in both central and peripheral nervous system, tachykinins and their receptors are expressed in a variety of non-neuronal cells: glial, smooth-muscle, epithelial, endothelial, glandular and immune cells, constituting an integrate process in the regulation of physiological function of all these cells. Therefore, tachykinins, being a part of the neuroendocrine system, create a complex network of communications between nervous system and other organ systems.

The intent of this volume is to address major aspects that are presently on the forefront of research on the role played by tachykinins in brain and non brain organs, with the hope to give a complete view on the most relevant of the diversified biological responses in which tachykinins are involved. The volume is initiated with a general overview of history and significance of tachykinin in human and non-human physiology. After this, a review is dedicated to an update of tachykinin receptor antagonists with particular attention to preclinical and clinical studies. Next, the involvement of tachykinins, presenting data at molecular and cellular levels and focusing on diseases due to a dysfunction in tachykinin responses is reported separately for brain, lung/airways, immune system, gastrointestinal tract and cardiovascular system. Finally, a glance on the relation between tachykinin system and human malignancies focused on the disparate effects exerted on several not-related tumor types, is proposed.

It is hoped that this endeavor will provide new insight giving impetus to the integrative resolution of the complex and intricate ‘tachykinin world’. By such means, the rational development of new therapeutic approaches can be put on a firm and logical basis.


Carla Palma
Department of Infectious
Parasitic and Immune-Mediated Diseases
Istituto Superiore di Sanità
Viale Regina Elena, 299
00161 Rome
Italy
E-mail: c.palma@iss.it


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Overview of the Primary Structure, Tissue-Distribution, and Functions of Tachykinins and their Receptors
H. Satake and T. Kawada

Tachykinins (TKs) constitute the largest vertebrate brain/gut peptide family. Since discovery of Substance P as a structurally unidentified vasodilatory and contractile compound in 1931, continuous and tremendous advances have been made regarding molecular and functional characterization of TKs and their receptors, revealing diverse molecular species of TK peptides with a C-terminal consensus -Phe-X-Gly-Leu-Met-NH₂, not ubiquitous but wide distribution and multiple biological activities of TKs and their receptors in central and peripheral tissues, elaborate and complicated ligand-recognition and multiple functional conformation of receptors, evolutionary aspects of brain/gut peptides, and the implication of TK peptides and receptors in many disorders of current keen interest. Indeed, the tachykinergic systems are now regarded as promising targets of novel clinical agents aimed at a variety of pathological symptoms and processes such as nociception, inflammation, neurodegeneration, and neuroprotection. In this review, we present an overview of basic knowledge and a buildup of recent advances in extensive fields of the ‘tachykinin kingdom’ including mammalian non-neuronal TKs, invertebrate salivary gland-specific TKs and TK-related brain/gut peptides (TKRPs). These findings shed new light on (1) the biological and biochemical significance of TKs, (2) evolutionary relationship of the structures and functions between mammalian and non-mammalian TK family peptides and receptors, and (3) the binding mode for the TK family peptides and their receptors and the resultant activation of the complexes that are essential for design and development of leading compounds.


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Tachykinin Receptors Antagonists: From Research to Clinic
L. Quartara and M. Altamura

In this chapter it is described how, starting from different approaches and through extensive medicinal chemistry studies, several discovery compounds were optimized and reached the development stage.

The first tachykinin receptor antagonist to reach the market in 2003 for chemotherapy-induced emesis has been aprepitant. Other clinical candidates (for central nervous system disorders: osanetant, talnetant and saredutant; for irritable bowel syndrome: nepadutant and saredutant) are in advanced clinical phase.

The clinical studies reported in the literature and the destiny of the clinical candidates, where available, will be reviewed.


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Tachykinins and Neuropsychiatric Disorders
L.A. Chahl

The classical tachykinins, substance P, neurokinin A and neurokinin B are predominantly found in the nervous system where they act as neurotransmitters and neuromodulators. Their respective preferred receptors are NK₁, NK₂, and NK₃ receptors. The presence of substance P in nociceptive primary afferent neurons, electrophysiological studies showing that it activated neurons in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord, and behavioral studies in animals, supported the concept that substance P was an important transmitter in the nociceptive pathway. It was therefore surprising that non-peptide NK₁ receptor antagonists were ineffective as analgesics in clinical pain conditions. Nevertheless, the discovery that NK₁ receptor antagonists had antidepressant activity led to renewed interest in these antagonists. It is disappointing that clinical trials of MK869 (aprepitant) for depression were suspended. The future of NK₁ receptor antagonists as anti-depressant drugs will depend on the outcome of clinical trials with other NK₁ receptor antagonists. NK₁ receptor antagonists were also found to be effective antiemetics, and aprepitant has recently become available for the treatment of chemotherapy induced emesis. Although less is known of the potential of NK₂ and NK₃ receptor antagonists, recent trials of NK₃ receptor antagonists have shown efficacy in schizophrenia. The discovery of a new family of tachykinins, the hemokinins and endokinins, which acts on NK₁ receptors and has potent effects on immune cells, has implications for the clinical use of NK₁ receptor antagonists. Thus specific therapeutic strategies may be required to enable NK₁ receptor antagonists to be introduced for treatment of neuropsychiatric disorders.


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Tachykinins in the Respiratory Tract
D.A. Groneberg, S. Harrison, Q.T. Dinh, P. Geppetti and A. Fischer

Tachykinins as substance P and neurokinin A belong to a family of peptides, which are released from airway nerves after noxious stimulation. They influence numerous respiratory functions under both normal and pathological conditions including the regulation of airway smooth muscle tone, vascular tone, mucus secretion and immune functions. For the most part the synthesis/release of tachykinins is associated with neuronal cells; nevertheless, inflammatory and immune cells can synthesize and release tachykinins under certain physiological conditions. Moreover, this second cellular source of tachykinins may play an important role in inflammatory airway diseases such as bronchial asthma or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Dual tachykinin (NK₁ and NK₂) receptor antagonists demonstrate a significant bronchoprotection and a possible future role in the development of novel therapeutic approaches. In addition, NK₃ receptors could also possess a bronchoprotective action, however, their presence in the human respiratory tract still needs to be confirmed. The family of tachykinins has recently been extended by the discovery of a third tachykinin gene that encodes the previously unknown NK₁ receptor selective tachykinins hemokinin 1, endokinin A and B. Together with other novel tachykinin peptides such as C14TKL-1 and virokinin further research is required to define their respiratory biological role in health and disease.


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Tachykinins in the Immune System
Y. Zhang, A. Berger, C.D. Milne and C.J. Paige

Until recently, the mammalian tachykinins included substance P, neurokinin A and neurokinin B. Following the discovery of the fourth member of this family, hemokinin 1, a diverse group of novel tachykinins and tachykinin gene-related peptides have been identified in mammals. These newly identified members are preferentially expressed in peripheral tissues. Currently, the impact of these new tachykinin peptides on the immune system remains unclear. Some data imply an important role for hemokinin 1 in the generation of lymphocytes. Tachykinins are traditionally viewed as neuropeptides with well-defined functions as neurotransmitters. Many studies however, indicate that they may also be produced by non-neuronal cells, and exert profound influence on inflammatory responses by affecting multiple aspects of immune cell function. It is of great importance to determine whether the new tachykinin peptides have similar effects. A more detailed understanding of the interactions between tachykinins and immune cells may provide the basis for the development of new therapies for inflammatory and immune-mediated diseases.


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Tachykinins: Role in Human Gastrointestinal Tract Physiology and Pathology
G. Improta and M. Broccardo

Tachykinins (TKs) and their receptors (NK1, NK2 and NK3), which are diffusely expressed in the human gastrointestinal tract, represent an endogenous modulator system regulating enteric secretomotor functions, inflammatory and immune responses, and visceral hypersensitivity, mainly during pathological gut diseases. Pathophysiological implications of TKs in the digestive tract include changes in TK innervation, in the expression of TKs and TK receptors, which result in inflammation- and immune-induced disturbances of gut functions, such as dysmotility (diarrhoea/constipation), secretory diarrhoea and visceral hyperalgesia. Increasing evidence correlates all these TKergic system abnormalities with gastrointestinal diseases of different etiology (i.e. inflammatory bowel diseases, irritable bowel syndrome). Accordingly, TK receptors have been identified as novel targets for the development of new therapeutic agents for clinical use. Available preclinical findings have shown that TK antagonists could counteract the most significant symptoms characterizing these gut diseases.


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Tachykinins and the Cardiovascular System
D.A. Walsh and D.F. McWilliams

The tachykinin family of vasoactive peptides comprises the neuropeptides substance P, neurokinin A and neurokinin B, and the newly discovered endokinins and hemokinins. Their cardiovascular effects are predominantly mediated by the family of neurokinin receptors. This review summarises the most recent advances in understanding the effects of tachykinins on the vasculature, and summarises their therapeutic potential.

Tachykinins stimulate plasma extravasation, particularly acting through neurokinin-1 receptors in an endothelium-dependent manner. They therefore play prominent roles in tissue oedema and inflammation (called neurogenic inflammation). Pro-inflammatory effects of tachykinins are enhanced by their capacity to stimulate inflammatory cell recruitment, and to initiate angiogenesis.

Tachykinins also regulate vascular tone and blood flow, although differences between species and between different vascular beds make this a highly complex area of research. They may relax vessels in some scenarios whilst inducing vasoconstriction in other situations, the state of the endothelium appearing to be of key importance. Tachykinins also modulate blood pressure and heart rate, acting both peripherally, and on the central nervous system.

Cardiovascular effects of tachykinins and neurokinin receptors may be important therapeutic targets in diverse disorders such as pulmonary oedema, hypertension, pre-eclampsia, complex regional pain syndrome type 2, stroke and chronic inflammatory diseases such as arthritis. Sophisticated modelling of human disease is required to enable neurokinin receptor antagonists to achieve this therapeutic potential.


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Tachykinins and their Receptors in Human Malignancies
C. Palma

The possibility of links between phsychosocial factors and cancer incidence and progression has generated considerable scientific and public interest. Tachykinins, including substance P, neurokinin A and B, hemokinin-1 and endokinins, are a family of neuropeptides, acting through three types of transmembrane G-protein coupled receptors denoted NK₁, NK₂ and NK₃. Besides, their role as neurotransmitters in peripheral and central nervous system, tachykinins and their receptors are also expressed in several non neuronal cells contributing to the fine connections between nervous systems and peripheral organ system such as, respiratory, cardiovascular, immune, endocrine, gastrointestinal and genitourinary. Being so much involved in regulating physiological functions, they, of course, can concur to pathological conditions including cancer.

Tachykinins can act on different steps of carcinogenesis. Tumors expressing NK receptors, such as astrocytoma, glioma, neuroblastoma, pancreatic cancer and melanoma, can misuse tachykinin-induced signaling, operating in normal cells, to promote proliferation and survival of cancer cells and to release cytokines and soluble mediators favoring tumor growth. In neuroblastoma, breast and prostate carcinomas tachykinins facilitate tumor metastatic infiltration in the bone marrow. In neuroendocrine carcinoma, tachykinins are responsible of symptoms associated with these pathologies including flushing, diarrhea, wheezing and right heart disease. In addition, regardless tumor histology, tachykinins may favor cancer incidence and metastatic progression by influencing blood flux and neovascularization in tumor formation as well as inducing immunesuppression mediated by neurogenic inflammation due to stress or surgery.

However, the precise involvement of tachykinins in cancer pathologies and the potentiality to become effective pharmacological drug targets remain to be fully defined.