Current Pharmaceutical Biotechnology

ISSN: 1389-2010

Current Pharmaceutical Biotechnology
Volume 8, Number 6, December 2007

Contents

RNA and Human Cancer
Guest Editor: Øystein Bruserud


Introduction: RNA and The Treatment of Human Cancer Pp. 318-319
Ø. Bruserud
[Abstract]


The Biology of RNA

MicroRNAs in Tumorigenesis Pp. 320-325
K.O. Skaftnesmo, L. Prestegarden, D.R. Micklem and J.B. Lorens
[Abstract]


RNA Base Damage and Repair Pp. 326-331
E. Feyzi, O. Sundheim, M.P. Westbye, P.A. Aas, C.B. Vågbø, M. Otterlei, G. Slupphaug and H.E. Krokan
[Abstract]


p53 Family Isoforms Pp. 333-336
J.-C. Bourdon
[Abstract]


Identification of Therapeutic Targets

RNAi Screening for Therapeutic Targets in Human Malignancies Pp. 337-343
D.R. Micklem and J.B. Lorens
[Abstract]


Global Gene Expression in Classification, Pathogenetic Understanding and Identification of Therapeutic Targets in Acute Myeloid Leukemia Pp. 344-354
A.M. Øyan, T.H. Bø, I. Jonassen, E. Ulvestad, B.T. Gjertsen, Ø. Bruserud and K.-H. Kalland
[Abstract]


Drug Delivery

Ultrasound-Directed Drug Delivery Pp. 355-361
M. Postema and O.H. Gilja
[Abstract]


Photochemical Internalization: A New Tool for Drug Delivery Pp. 362-372
K. Berg, M. Folini, L. Prasmickaite, P.K. Selbo, A. Bonsted, B.Ø. Engesæter, N. Zaffaroni, A. Weyergang, A. Dietze, G.M. Mælandsmo, E. Wagner, O.-J. Norum and A. Høgset
[Abstract]


Present Therapeutic Approaches

Bcl-2 Antisense in the Treatment of Human Malignancies: Delusion in Targeted Therapy Pp. 373-381
B.T. Gjertsen, T. Bredholt, N. Ånensen and O.K. Vintermyr
[Abstract]


Epigenetic Lesions in Malignant Melanoma Pp. 382-387
M. Schwabe and M. Lübbert
[Abstract]


Histone Deacetylase Inhibitors in Cancer Treatment: A Review of the Clinical Toxicity and the Modulation of Gen Expression in Cancer Cells Pp. 388-400
Ø. Bruserud, C. Stapnes, E. Ersvær, B.T. Gjertsen and A. Ryningen
[Abstract]


Epigenetic Targeting in Acute Myeloid Leukemia: Use of Flow Cytometry in Monitoring Therapeutic Effects Pp. 401-411
A. Ryningen and Ø. Bruserud
[Abstract]




Abstracts

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Introduction: RNA and The Treatment of Human Cancer
Ø. Bruserud

Epigenetic events are important in carcinogenesis and for the susceptibility of malignant cells to chemotherapy, and this knowledge has identified a new generation of oncogenes and thereby also a new class of possible therapeutic targets for anticancer treatment. RNA reflects gene expression and can thereby be used for identification of therapeutic targets through global gene expression analysis or siRNA screening. However, molecular events at the RNA level are important regulatory mechanisms (i.e., the small regulatory RNAs) and a level for posttranscriptional modification of proteins through alternative RNA splicing. Recent publications have described RNA repair mechanisms that may be involved in carcinogenesis as well as chemosensitivity of human cancer. Most available clinical studies try to target gene expression and thereby RNA-associated regulatory mechanisms mainly through non-specific targeting of gene expression by histone deacetylase inhibition or demethylating agents, but the use of bcl-2 antisense represents an example of specific therapy. Future RNA-targeting studies have to focus on the development of new therapeutic strategies: (i) new therapeutic agents should possibly be more specifically directed towards the target molecules rather than towards more general molecular mechanisms with effects on a wide range of intracellular regulators; and (ii) drug delivery systems have to be developed so that the treatment can be directed towards the localization of the malignant disease to reduce the risk of serious side effects.


[Back to top]
The Biology of RNA

MicroRNAs in Tumorigenesis
K.O. Skaftnesmo, L. Prestegarden, D.R. Micklem and J.B. Lorens

Emerging evidence suggests a class of non-coding RNAs termed microRNAs (miRNAs) play a key role in cancer. Since their original discovery in C. elegans in 1993 it has become evident that miRNAs are responsible for an entirely new mechanism of post-transcriptional gene regulation. miRNA expression is widespread in mammalian cells and notably altered in several cancer types. miRNA expression patterns correlate with several aspects of tumorigenesis and miRNA loci have been mapped to frequently altered cancer-associated genomic regions. Inhibition or augmentation of miRNA expression in cancer cells impacts gene expression and affects cell proliferation and survival. Hence, cancer-associated miRNAs may be regarded as a new class of non-coding tumour suppressors and oncogenes capable of regulating several key signalling pathways.


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RNA Base Damage and Repair
E. Feyzi, O. Sundheim, M.P. Westbye, P.A. Aas, C.B. Vågbø, M. Otterlei, G. Slupphaug and H.E. Krokan

Elaborate repair pathways counteract the deleterious effects of DNA damage by mechanisms that are understood in reasonable detail. In contrast, repair of damaged RNA has not been widely explored. This may be because aberrant RNAs are generally assumed to be degraded rather than repaired. The reason for this view is well founded, since conserved surveillance mechanisms that degrade abnormal RNAs are thoroughly documented. Numerous proteins and protein-RNA complexes are involved in the metabolism of different RNA species, assuring correct transcription, splicing, posttranscriptional modifications, transport, translation and timely degradation of the molecule. However, like DNA, RNA is under constant attack of various environmental and endogenous agents that damage the molecule, such as alkylating agents, radiation and free radicals. Importantly, many DNA damaging drugs used in cancer therapy also modify RNA, presumably causing delayed or faulty translation. This may result in generation of inactive proteins, dominant negative proteins or toxic protein aggregates. Several lines of evidence indicate RNA repair as a possible cellular defence mechanism to cope with RNA damage. Thus, there are convincing examples of tRNA repair by elongation of truncated forms, and repair of cleaved tRNA by T4 phage proteins. In addition, in vitro repair of aberrant tRNA methylation by a methyl transferase has been reported. Finally, recent reports on repair of chemically methylated RNA by AlkB and a human homologue (hABH3) in vitro and in vivo strengthen the idea of RNA base repair as a cellular defence mechanism.


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p53 Family Isoforms
J.-C. Bourdon

p63, p73 and p53 are transcription factors members of the p53 gene family involved in development, differentiation and cell response to stress. p53 gene is mutated in 50% of human cancer. Moreover, when p53 gene is not mutated then its tumour suppressor pathway is lost through interaction with abnormally expressed cellular protein or viral protein. Therefore p53 pathway inactivation is a common denominator to cancer. However, it is still difficult to associate in the clinic p53 status to cancer prognosis and diagnosis. Recent publications may have a profound impact on our understanding of p53 tumour suppressor activity. p63, p73 and p53 genes have a dual gene structure conserved in drosophila, zebrafish and man. They encode for multiple p63, p73 or p53 proteins containing different protein domains (isoforms) due to multiple splicing, alternative promoter and alternative initiation of translation. The interplay between p53, p63 and p73 isoforms are likely to be fundamental to our understanding of tumour formation.


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Identification of Therapeutic Targets

RNAi Screening for Therapeutic Targets in Human Malignancies
D.R. Micklem and J.B. Lorens

The advent of RNA interference (RNAi) based library screening approaches has sparked a surge in loss-of-function genetic screens. Several recent screens have aimed to identify novel regulators of cancer-related phenotypes. These employ various tumor cell types to model malignant cell functions and use different RNAi effector library approaches to reveal a cache of novel tumor regulators. This review surveys recent RNAi screens conducted in transformed human cells.


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Global Gene Expression in Classification, Pathogenetic Understanding and Identification of Therapeutic Targets in Acute Myeloid Leukemia
A.M. Øyan, T.H. Bø, I. Jonassen, E. Ulvestad, B.T. Gjertsen, Ø. Bruserud and K.-H. Kalland

Global gene expression analysis by way of DNA microarrays and real time quantitative PCR provides an important supple-ment to established diagnosis and classification of malignant disease. A comprehensive molecular understanding of the regulatory modules involved in carcinogenesis should also be important for improved identification of therapeutic targets and thus for future individualized therapy, e.g., by allowing therapeutic synergy when designing combination therapy against vulnerable points in the malignant cells. The therapeutic potential of knowledge obtained from global gene expression analysis of malignant cells is crucially dependent upon a similarly fine-grained knowledge of gene regulation in normal cells. The deviant gene expression patterns should therefore be assessed on a background of gene expression associated with housekeeping functions, particular differentiation stages and epiphenomena due to genomic instability. Since malignant cells originate from transformed precursor cells, such reference information can be obtained from investigations of embryonic and somatic stem cells. Much has recently been learned about the regulatory modules of normal hematopoietic stem cells and their malignant counterparts, and new biologically and clinically relevant patient subgroups as well as novel prognostic and therapeutic molecular markers have been identified. The present review weighs up the results and their potentialities with reference to gene expression analysis in acute myeloid leukemia (AML).


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Drug Delivery

Ultrasound-Directed Drug Delivery
M. Postema and O.H. Gilja

It has been proven, that the cellular uptake of drugs and genes is increased, when the region of interest is under ultrasound in-sonification, and even more when a contrast agent is present. This increased uptake has been attributed to the formation of transient porosities in the cell membrane, which are big enough for the transport of drugs into the cell (sonoporation). Owing to this technique, new ultrasound contrast agents that incorporate a therapeutic compound have become of interest. Combining ultrasound contrast agents with therapeutic substances, such a chemotherapeutics and virus vectors, may lead to a simple and economic method to instantly cure upon diagnosis, using conventional ultrasound scanners. There are two hypotheses for explaining the sonoporation phenomenon, the first being microbubble oscillations near a cell membrane, the second being microbubble jetting through the cell membrane. Based on modeling, high-speed photography, and recent cellular uptake measurements, it is concluded that microbubble jetting behavior is less likely to be the dominant sonoporation mechanism. Ultrasound-directed drug delivery using microbubbles is a promising method that has great potential in the treatment of malignant disorders.


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Photochemical Internalization: A New Tool for Drug Delivery
K. Berg, M. Folini, L. Prasmickaite, P.K. Selbo, A. Bonsted, B.Ø. Engesæter, N. Zaffaroni, A. Weyergang, A. Dietze, G.M. Mælandsmo, E. Wagner, O.-J. Norum and A. Høgset

The utilisation of macromolecules in the therapy of cancer and other diseases is becoming increasingly important. Recent ad-vances in molecular biology and biotechnology have made it possible to improve targeting and design of cytotoxic agents, DNA complexes and other macromolecules for clinical applications. In many cases the targets of macromolecular therapeutics are intracellular. However, degradation of macromolecules in endocytic vesicles after uptake by endocytosis is a major intracellular barrier for the therapeutic application of macromolecules having intracellular targets of action.

Photochemical internalisation (PCI) is a novel technology for the release of endocytosed macromolecules into the cytosol. The technology is based on the activation by light of photosensitizers located in endocytic vesicles to induce the release of macromolecules from the endocytic vesicles. Thereby, endocytosed molecules can be released to reach their target of action before being degraded in lysosomes. PCI has been shown to stimulate intracellular delivery of a large variety of macromolecules and other molecules that do not readily penetrate the plasma membrane, including type I ribosome-inactivating proteins (RIPs), DNA delivered as gene-encoding plasmids or by means of adenovirus or adeno-associated virus, peptide nucleic acids (PNAs) and chemotherapeutic agents such as bleomycin and in some cases doxorubicin. PCI of PNA may be of particular importance due to the low therapeutic efficacy of PNA in the absence of an efficient delivery technology and the 10-100-fold increased efficacy in combination with PCI. The efficacy and specificity of PCI of macromolecular therapeutics has been improved by combining the macromolecules with targeting moieties, such as the epidermal growth factor. In general, PCI can induce efficient light-directed delivery of macromolecules into the cytosol, indicating that it may have a variety of useful applications for site-specific drug delivery as for example in gene therapy, vaccination and cancer treatment.


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Present Therapeutic Approaches

Bcl-2 Antisense in the Treatment of Human Malignancies: A Delusion in Targeted Therapy
B.T. Gjertsen, T. Bredholt, N. Ånensen and O.K. Vintermyr

Regulation of cell death (apoptosis) is frequently affected in the development of malignant diseases, and all molecular steps from extracellular signalling receptors through intracellular pathways, cell death rheostats and cell death executioners may be involved. Bcl-2 is an anti-apoptotic member of a family of anti- and pro-apoptotic proteins that is upregulated in a variety of cancers and specifically overexpressed through chromosomal translocation in some non-Hodgkin lymphomas. Experimental attenuation of Bcl-2 lowers the threshold for undergoing chemotherapy-induced apoptosis. Therefore, therapeutic targeting of Bcl-2 appears as an attractive approach currently intensely explored using mRNA degradation strategies and small inhibitory molecules. One phosphorothioate oligodeoxynuc-leotide antisense against Bcl-2 mRNA, oblimersen (Genasense™, G3139), has been used in a substantial number of clinical trials. In this review we will discuss the current developments of G3139, and scrutinize its proposed mechanism of action. Several studies indicate that G3139 involves various intracellular mechanisms and modulation of the immune system. To this date G3139 has not been justified in cancer therapy due to modest or absent effects. But, surprisingly, some of its off-target effects may represent useful therapeutic principles. Therefore, antisense uptake improvements and new design of the oligonucleotide may provide us with useful therapeutics, including both the targeted gene and new anticancer mechanisms. This may be another example of how targeted therapy molecules evolve into multimodality drugs when moved from laboratory bench to bedside use, and illustrate our limited ability for target prediction and scant understanding of biological systems when designing therapeutic strategies.


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Epigenetic Lesions in Malignant Melanoma
M. Schwabe and M. Lübbert

Malignant melanoma arises through a series of genetic and epigenetic events. A more profound understanding of the biology of metastatic melanoma should greatly aid in the development of new and effective treatments. Currently, avenues being pursued to improve treatment of metastatic melanoma include dendritic cell vaccines and other vaccination strategies, tyrosine kinase inhibitors, adoptive transfer of ex vivo stimulated T cells, and, as reviewed here, epigenetic approaches. The "methylator phenotype", with inactivation by promoter hypermethylation of numerous genes in malignant melanoma cell lines and primary tumors (p16, PTEN, RASSF1, estrogen receptor, retinoic acid receptor beta, SOCS1 and -2, MGMT etc.) offers a strong rationale for treatment approaches based on the use of DNA demethylating agents. The clinical literature on treatment of metastasized malignant melanoma with either 5-azacytidine or 5-aza-2'-deoxycytidine (decitabine) is reviewed. Future trials in malignant melanoma with these compounds might profit from prolonged low-dose exposure, since they unfold their full effects not immediately but with a certain delay, which may be associated with their DNA demethylating activity. Combinations of DNA demethylation agents with either histone deacetylase inhibitors, interleukin-2, chemotherapy or tamoxifen have been embarked on both in in vitro models of melanoma and recent clinical trials. The in vitro synergism between inhibitors of DNA methylation and histone deacetylation strongly invites a systematic study of combinations of both groups of agents. Up-regulation of cancer testis antigens by epigenetic therapy in melanoma also offers a very strong rationale to place these drugs and sche dules within a larger treatment concept of immunotherapy which may include also T cell activation e.g. by interleukin-2, and vaccination strategies. In conclusion, the epigenome of malignant melanoma, with a well-established in vitro reversal potential, holds promise as a novel molecular target.


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Histone Deacetylase Inhibitors in Cancer Treatment: A Review of the Clinical Toxicity and the Modulation of Gene Expression in Cancer Cells
Ø. Bruserud, C. Stapnes, E. Ersvær, B.T. Gjertsen and A. Ryningen

Characterization of epigenetic events in carcinogenesis has led to the discovery of a new class of oncogenes and thereby a new class of therapeutic targets. Among the new therapeutic approaches are modulation of protein lysine acetylation through inhibition of histone deacetylases (HDACs). HDACs deacetylate histones as well as transcription factors and can modulate gene expression through both these mechanisms in normal and malignant cells. Furthermore, acetylation is an important posttranslational modulation of several proteins involved in the regulation of cell proliferation, differentiation and apoptosis in normal as well as cancer cells. Even though several HDAC inhibitors have been characterized in vitro, only a limited number of these agents are in clinical trials. Various HDAC inhibitors differ in their toxicity profile when comparing the side effects described in the available clinical studies of HDAC inhibition in the treatment of cancer. These drugs may also affect normal hematopoiesis; hematologic toxicity is common to many drugs but stimulation of hematopoiesis seems to occur for others. HDAC inhibitors usually affect <10% of the genes in cancer cells. Divergent effects of HDAC inhibition on the global gene expression profiles have been described when testing various cancer cells, and this is further complicated by altered HDAC expression induced by HDAC inhibitors. However, increased p21 expression seems to be a common characteristic for most studies, suggesting an important role of this molecule during HDAC inhibitory treatment. Even though the initial studies are encouraging, additional in vitro and in vivo pharmacological characterization is definitely needed.


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Epigenetic Targeting in Acute Myeloid Leukemia: Use of Flow Cytometry in Monitoring Therapeutic Effects
A. Ryningen and Ø. Bruserud

Flow cytometric techniques have emerged as a powerful tool in hematology allowing fast, sensitive and reproducible multi-parametric analyses at the single cell level of heterogeneous samples. Small subsets of cells can be studied with high degree of accuracy, and a broad and constantly increasing specter of antibodies is available. Flow cytometry has therefore become the method of choice for evaluation of therapeutic effects at single cell level. These methodological approaches can easily be used to study hematological malignancies, and the future use of this strategy in other malignancies will depend on the development of laboratory techniques to prepare suspensions of viable cells also from tumor biopsies. The selection of biological parameters for evaluation of treatment effects should probably be based on (i) molecular markers involved in cancer-associated genetic abnormalities; (ii) other molecular markers showing altered expression in the malignant cells and thought to be involved in leukemogenesis or having a prognostic impact; (ii) functional assays known to reflect biological characteristics that are important in carcinogenesis (e.g. cell cycle distribution, fu nctional evaluation of apoptosis regulation). These molecules will in addition often represent the therapeutic targets when new anticancer drugs are developed. In this review we use treatment of acute myeloid leukemia with histone deacteylase inhibitors as an example. Based on the criteria mentioned above we suggest that the monitoring of therapeutic effects on the cancer cells in these patients should include differentiation status, histone acetylation, cell cycle distribution, pro- and anti-apoptotic signaling balance and intracellular levels of various transcription factors.